REDUCED TO SKIN AND BONES REVISITED:

REDUCED TO

SKIN AND BONES

REVISITED: REDUCED TO

SKIN AND BONES

BREDUCED TO SKIN AND

BONES REVISITED:

AN UPDATED ANALYSIS OF TIGER SEIZURES

FROM 12 TIGER RANGE COUNTRIES (2000-2012)ONES

REVISITED: REDUCED TO

SKIN AND BONES

RACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

The authors would like to thank the Governments of India, Malaysia, Bhutan, Lao People’s Democratic

Republic (PDR), Myanmar and Thailand, along with TRAFFIC offices in Delhi, Beijing, Kuala Lumpur, Taipei

and Hanoi and WWF national offices in Nepal, USA, Russia, and Bhutan. Information was also provided by

the Wildlife Conservation Society (WCS) Indonesia and Lao PDR, the World Bank and Education for Nature

– Viet Nam.

We would specifically like to extend our thanks to TRAFFIC colleagues; Steven Broad, Claire Beastall, James

Compton, Chris R. Shepherd, Kanitha Krishnasamy, Stephanie Pendry, Rashid Raza, Tom Milliken, Xu Ling,

Joyce Wu and Naomi Doak for their support and useful contributions. Particular thanks also go to Kristin

Nowell, from the IUCN Cat Specialist Group, for her invaluable input. Carrie Stengel, from the WWF

Tigers Alive Initiative, is thanked for her assistance with the graphi cs throughout the report.

The Rufford Foundation is gratefully acknowledged for its contribution towards the final stages of production

of this report. We would also like to extend our thanks to the Global Tiger Forum (GTF) and INTERPOL for

their contribution to the review process.

This report is the joint work of TRAFFIC and WWF Tigers Alive Initiative.

VISITED: REDUCED TO

SKEXECUTIVE SUMMARY

In 2010, TRAFFIC produced ‘Reduced to Skin and Bones: An Analysis of Tiger Seizures from 11 Tiger Range

Countries (2000-2010)’ (Verheij, 2010). The purpose of the present report is to provide an updated situational

analysis of the current illegal Tiger Panthera tigris trade picture and to gain an improved understanding of one

of the greatest threats to the Tiger’s survival. This report also aims to illustrate the need, use, practicability

and direction that can be gained from the central collation and analysis of seizure data. Its conclusions outline

the need for Tiger range and consumer countries to agree on and adhere to a standardized format for sharing

and reporting data on poaching and illegal trade.

Seizures are indicators both of illegal trade and of law enforcement effort. A lack of reported

seizures (such as in Myanmar) needs to be considered against other data, which in this case points to

substantial illegal transit trade, based on TRAFFIC market surveys. Seizure information was collected from a

variety of sources, most importantly directly from a number of Tiger range country (TRC) governments, as well

as TRAFFIC and WWF offices, supplemented with online research including media reports of government

announcements of law enforcement activity. To render seizure data comparable, records of seized items were

tallied as units that could be used to calculate the number of Tigers involved in each seizure.

Since 2000, there have been 654 seizures of Tiger parts and derivatives across 12 TRCs (Bhutan, Bangladesh,

China, India, Indonesia, Lao PDR, Malaysia, Myanmar, Nepal, Russia, Thailand and Viet Nam1). It is estimated

that a minimum 1425 Tigers were seized during this period. Since only a fraction of Tigers in illegal trade

are intercepted by law enforcement, the scale of criminal activity represents a serious ongoing threat to the

survival of wild Tigers, generally considered to number as low as 3200.

India, the country with the largest national wild Tiger population, reported the most seizures since 2000

(336). Next were China (58) and Viet Nam (50), which have small numbers of wild Tigers, but large numbers

of captive animals. Both China and Viet Nam have been identified as important zones of consumption for

illegal Tiger products. Looking at recent seizures (2010-2012), the proportion that India accounts for shows

a downward trend, 29% of total seizures compared to 58% for 2000-2009. Conversely, the proportion of

seizures has increased for other TRCs such as China, Malaysia, Nepal and Russia but is most notable for Viet

Nam, rising from 6% to 14%. Moreover, Indonesia with a relatively small wild Tiger population and few

known captive animals, disproportionately seized almost 20% of all Tigers seized in the past three years.

Clearly, as this study demonstrates, demand persists - tigers are still being poached and seized. Improved law

enforcement and the emergence of intelligence-led policing may mean that some aspects of the illicit trade are

being displaced to online markets. As has been revealed in China, offenders have shown that they can adapt

their modus operandi to circumvent detection, including a shift towards the trading of Tiger parts and productsINonline. It is paramount that law enforcement also adopts this approach by identifying the current and relevant

threats and shifts their focus to ensure they are one step ahead of the offenders. Understanding how end-user

markets operate will ensure that criminals cannot continue to evade detection.

In October 2012, the United Nations Convention against Transboundary Organized Crime (UNTOC)

recognised environmental crime, including illicit trafficking in wildlife, as a new form of transboundary

organized crime in need of a greater response. Tiger seizure cases often conform to the UNTOC definition of

organized crime, with an average of two suspects arrested per seizure (and one-tenth of cases involving three

or more suspects) and sentences averaging 4.3 years handed down in prosecutions. There are some specific

elements of serious and organized criminality identified in the seizure dataset, particularly within Russia and

Nepal. Overwhelmingly, lack of information impedes a comprehensive assessment on the scale of organised

crime driving the illegal Tiger trade.

Sufficient locality information was available to map 596 of the 654 seizures. Seizures within a protected

area accounted for just over 11% of these, meaning that most poached Tigers are removed from such areas

undetected. The data revealed that 31% of seizures occurred within 10 km of a protected area, a further 48%

within 50 km, showing that most occurred near areas where wild Tigers live. Just 10% of seizures occurred

farther than 50 km from a park. In India, which has the most robust national seizure dataset, crime analysis

mapping software was used to pinpoint five statistically significant hotspots of illegal Tiger trade.

While protection at the landscape level is of critical importance for safeguarding Tiger populations, it must

be integrated with and reinforced by intelligence-led enforcement beyond park borders. The need and value

of such an approach in tackling the illegal Tiger trade is being realised, with more seizures occurring due to

improved intelligence. Nonetheless, more effort is needed to investigate and expose the mechanisms by which

the trade chains operate, without which anti-poaching and landscape protection cannot be truly effective.

Substantial operational trade hubs have been identified based on seizure information from the last three years

(2010-2012). In addition, while a relatively low number of seizures have occurred in Indonesia, Viet Nam and

Thailand, the extrapolated number of Tigers being seized has increased during this period. Urgent efforts are

needed at these trade hubs to alleviate the pressure on wild Tiger populations.

Renewed impetus is needed to combat regional level illicit wildlife trade by enhancing collaboration between

the TRCs. To some extent this is already happening, with the establishment of transboundary wildlife

enforcement networks such as ASEAN-WEN and SAWEN, including engagement by these regional bodies

with China. These platforms have also encouraged the endorsement of bilateral Memoranda of Understanding

that still need to be further contextualised into transborder governmental action plans. However, more coordination

and support is needed to enhance those networks which are already in place. Intelligence analysis

produced by the systematic compilation of seizure data should be used to direct and focus their enforcements

BONES

Refforts and enable a plan of future resource prioritisation. Engagement with INTERPOL is essential. One

of INTERPOL’s most important functions is to assist police (via INTERPOL’s National Central Bureau

[NCB]) in its member countries to share critical crime-related information using I-24/7, INTERPOL’s secure

communication network and the system of international Notices and Diffusions. Information sharing with

INTERPOL is essential to facilitate and enhance wider investigations. As an inter-governmental agency

INTERPOL has the necessary leverage through the NCBs to gather information at a national level and to

perform a vital role monitoring Tiger trade globally.

Looking ahead to 2022, one major goal of the 12-year Global Tiger Recovery Program (GTRP) adopted in

2010 by the TRCs is to effectively eliminate Tiger poaching and trade. In its section on Expected Results, the

GTRP anticipates Tiger seizures may increase initially as law enforcement effort is improved and scaled up,

but by 2015 they should start to decline to that Tigers and Tiger products (parts and derivatives) are no longer

evident in illegal trade. This report has found that seizures are generally on the increase in most TRCs, and

only in India is there any indication, although still tentative, that extensive national crime-fighting and Tiger

protection efforts may be starting to pay off through a reduction in illegal trade.

RECOMMENDATIONS

The following recommendations are made with an emphasis on how the systematic recording of information

by TRCs can be used as a more effective basis for analysis, in order to assist law enforcement efforts.E

V1. Governance and Policy

All Tiger range and consumer countries should fully implement the provisions of Convention on International

Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora (CITES) Resolution Conf. 12.5 (Rev. CoP15) on Asian

big cats (ABCs) and associated CoP Decisions.

TRCs should submit adequate and timely reports on Asian Big Cats to the CITES Secretariat on measures

taken to comply with CITES Resolution Conf. 12.5 (Rev. CoP15) and other relevant Decisions relevant to

Tigers such as Decision 14.69.

2. Online Trade

TRCs should seek out and address any online Tiger trade, building on the proactive approach taken by China.

3. Information Sharing and Analysis

At the 16th CITES Conference of the Parties (CoP), the Parties engaged in the GTRP should develop a

colloborative process for reporting to both CITES under Resolution Conf. 12.5 (Rev. CoP15) and the GTRP.

The GTRP should develop and agree on a robust and timely reporting mechanism that will also fulfil the

requirements of CITES for Tigers. This should be submitted to the Standing Commitee (SC) 65. This levelof co-ordination would also assist in streamlining the reporting requirements for TRCs.

Software, such as i2, is proposed as a centralized system for the recording and analysis of transboundary

organized Tiger trade at a regional level and enable regular data submission on a biannual / annual basis.

TRCs are requested to consider feeding information into a tailored database managed by regional Wildlife

Enforcement Networks (WEN).

TRCs should initiate intelligence sharing through INTERPOL Notices. Similarly, INTERPOL should consider

ways in which actionable information from relevant non-governmental organizations can be utilised.

The Tiger DNA database project, currently being developed by TRACE2, should be adequately funded and

resourced to continue its application to all countries in the region housing captive Tiger populations to enable

testing of seizures against the database to determine their source. Furthermore, DNA-testing should be

mandatory for all Tiger seizures.

Governments should consider conducting in-depth assessments, examining the purpose of Tiger breeding

facilities in their respective jurisdictions, and any connection to trade in Tigers and Tiger products.

4. Law Enforcement, Protection and Intelligence

As a minumum measure, park patrolling should be enhanced through the use of Spatial Monitoring and

Reporting (SMART) Tools to all Tiger-inhabited Protected Areas.

All TRCs should consider the implementation of a multi-agency (border police, Customs, forestry police

among others) national task force dedicated to addressing wildlife crime at the national level.

National law enforcement units similar to Wildlife Crime Control Bureaus (WCCB) already in existence in

India and Nepal should be considered as model structures to be adapted by other TRCs.

2 TRACE is an international NGO that aims to promote the use of forensic science in biodiversity

conservation and the investigation of wildlife crime.

SITED:

An1. INTRODUCTION & BACKGROUND

Less than 100 years ago Tigers were found throughout much of Asia. Today their range has been reduced

by 93% and wild populations now only exist in 13 countries: Bangladesh, Bhutan, Cambodia, China, India,

Indonesia, Lao PDR, Malaysia, Myanmar, Nepal, Russia, Thailand and Viet Nam. At present, Tigers occur

only in scattered populations in small, isolated and fragmented landscapes. To redress this, an International

Tiger Conservation Forum was held in St. Petersburg, Russia in November 2010, resulting in the adoption

of the St. Petersburg Declaration on Tiger Conservation which framed the objectives of the Global Tiger

Recovery Program (GTRP). The GTRP lays out a comprehensive set of actions to help Tigers recover from

their main threats: poaching, the illegal trade, human encroachment and destruction of habitat. Each TRC

committed to a set of National Tiger Recovery Priorities (NTRP) and have since invested efforts to implement

them.

In parallel to the Forum, the heads of CITES, INTERPOL, United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime

(UNODC), the World Bank and the World Customs Organization (WCO) agreed to form the International

Consortium on Combating Wildlife Crime (ICCWC). This consortium aims to bring coordinated support to

governments, national wildlife and forest law enforcement agencies and sub- regional networks to protect the

world’s natural resources from criminal exploitation. A year after the Tiger Summit, INTERPOL launched

Project Predator with a global objective to aid the development of effective governance and to improve the

quality of criminal justice responses to Tiger crime. In September 2012, INTERPOL launched the National

Environmental Security Task Force (NEST) initiative within the framework of Project Predator. The NEST

initiative aimed to establish a common platform and approach worldwide for national compliance and

law enforcement responses. It calls upon the 190 member countries of INTERPOL to structure and equip

themselves with the necessary tools to work towards the establishment of NESTs involving law enforcement,

Customs, environmental agencies, prosecutors and other specialist agencies. Another high-level recognition

of wildlife crime occurred in October 2012, when the United Nations Convention against Transboundary

Organised Crime (UNTOC) recognized environmental crime, such as trafficking in wildlife, as a new form of

transboundary organized crime requiring a greater response. During this meeting, a resolution was adopted by

the participating countries which encouraged governments to further strengthen their domestic laws to prevent

and combat criminality occurring at this level.

Despite these significant high-level commitments and worldwide efforts of transboundary enforcement

organizations to protect one of the most iconic species on Earth, the pressure on Tiger populations and Tiger

habitats has continued to intensify. Poaching persists in many countries, for example in India, where as many

as 59 poaching incidents were reported in 2012. Large Tiger seizures reported in 2012 (eight Tiger skins and

22 Tigers skulls seized in Malaysia, eight Tiger skins seized in the Russian Far East and 11 Tiger skins seized

in Indonesia) are indicative that the illegal trade in Tiger parts and derivatives undermines current conservation Updefforts and remains a major threat to the recovery of wild Tigers population. The complexity of addressing

poaching and the trade in Tigers requires multi-agency commitment from every TRC. Transboundary law

enforcement networks such as ASEAN-WEN and SAWEN, coupled with engagement with China and Russia

can provide mechanisms and platforms for inter-governmental collaboration and information exchange;

however, higher-level political will and agency involvement, to commit to information sharing, are essential

elements for combating organized wildlife crime.

BACKGROUND

In 2010 TRAFFIC produced ‘Reduced to Skin and Bones: An Analysis of Tiger Seizures from 11 Tiger range

Countries (2000-2010)‘. Key findings from that report included the analysis of 481 seizures from 11 of the 13

TRCs (excluding Bhutan and Cambodia, which did not provide information) between the period Jan 2000 to

April 2010. Of the 11 TRCs analysed, India, China and Nepal ranked highest for the number of seizures, with

India reporting by far the highest number of seizures (n=276). This pioneering analysis concluded that parts

from at least 1069 Tigers were seized over the 10-year period. Building on the 2010 report, including addressing

some data gaps and levels of analysis, this new report is prepared to coincide with the 16th Conference of the

Parties to CITES and has been produced by a dedicated crime analyst.

AIM & PURPOSE

The purpose of this current report is to provide an updated situational analysis of the Tiger trade picture in

2013 and to identify the greatest current threats to the Tiger. It aims to illustrate the need, use, practicability

and direction that can be gained from the central collation and analysis of seizure data. Its conclusions will

outline the requirement for Tiger range and consumer countries to agree on and adhere to a standardized format

for sharing and reporting data on poaching and illegal trade. This report does not endeavour to examine

the drivers of the illegal trade nor the motivations of offenders.

Using an innovative criminal analysis approach will assist in targeting and directing enforcement interventions.

Findings will be used to inform national (police, Customs, border services, nature protection and other

relevant

agencies) and international law enforcement agencies (INTERPOL) and WENs. The report offers

some recommendations on how to address specific Tiger trade issues at both regional and trans-regional levels

and to enable the allocation of limited law enforcement resources to the specific problems causing significant harm.

2. METHODOLOGY

METHODOLOGY

Seizure data have been compiled and analysed for the last 13 years (January 2000 - December 2012) for all

TRCs, excluding Cambodia which has not reported any seizures since 1998. Information was collected from

a variety of sources. Government data were received from the National Tiger Conservation Authority (India),

Department of Wildlife and National Parks (Peninsular Malaysia), Department of Forests and Park Services

(Bhutan), Department of Forest Inspection (Lao PDR) and the Ministry of Environmental Conservation and

Forestry (Myanmar). Data were also sought from WWF Bhutan, WWF Nepal, WWF Russia, and WWF US,

TRAFFIC offices in China, India, Malaysia and Russia, Malaysian Conservation Alliance for Tiger (MYCAT),

WCS Indonesia and Conservation International (Cambodia). Further research online was also carried out.

This report will analyse Tiger seizures over a 13-year period which will allow for the reporting of indicative

trends only, due to disparity in the collection of seizure data. Therefore, any trends discussed must be treated

with caution. This report is intended as an update to ‘Reduced to Skin and Bones: An Analysis of Tiger Seizures

from 11 Tiger Range Countries (2000-2010)’ and will compare results with the original findings to ascertain

if those previous threats are still apparent or whether new emerging threats now exist. Therefore this report

will discuss, primarily, the current reporting period (2010-2012) in comparison to the previous (2000- 2009).

2.1 Analysis

To render seizure data comparable, records of seized items were assigned to one of the following three

categories that could be used to calculate the minimum and maximum number of Tigers involved in each

seizure based on methods used by Nowell and Xu (2007) and Shepherd and Nijman (2008).

1. Quantities of body parts equivalent to one or more Tigers - counted in seizure cases involving claws,

canine teeth, heads, ribs, legs, penises, skulls and jaw bones. When seizure records were identified as involving

“teeth”, these records were assumed to represent canine teeth, as these are the most common Tiger teeth

observed in trade. Minimum Tiger counts: For each seizure, the minimum number of whole Tigers that could

yield the items present was calculated. Calculations were always to yield whole numbers of Tigers. For

example, between one and 18 claws in a seizure were deemed to equate to a single Tiger because Tigers have

18 claws. Likewise, four claws, one head, and two ribs were also deemed to equate to a single Tiger because

the parts involved amounted to no more than those present in one animal. The seizure of Tiger parts number

 weight representing at least one Tiger present in a single seizure (Figure 1).

ated Analysis of Tiger

Sei2. Complete pieces that represented whole Tigers - counted in seizure cases involving whole skins, full

skeletons, complete carcasses, taxidermy mounts and live animals. Such instances required no minimum or

maximum as the pieces, for example a skull or a whole skin could not have represented anything but a single

Tiger.

3. Quantities of Tiger derivatives - counted in seizure cases of meat and processed products, like medicines,

wine. Minimum Tiger calculations: For the purposes of analysis, 10 kg of bones were determined to be

equivalent to one Tiger. This extrapolation is based on interviews with representatives of the Chinese medicine

industry who noted that the annual removal of Tigers from the wild peaked in the 1960s at approximately 300

animals, yielding approximately three metric tonnes of Tiger bone (Jenkins 2006, Nowell and Xu 2007). In

many cases, the exact dimensions of “skin pieces” and “bone pieces” were not recorded. Hence, seizures

containing a number of skin or bone pieces (with or without addition of other parts) were conservatively

considered to represent one Tiger. Maximum Tiger calculations: In order to avoid disproportionate Tiger

numbers, no maximum calculations were made for weight specifications or “pieces”. Theoretically, 33 skin

pieces could originate from one Tiger (minimum) or from 33 (maximum), and a kilogramme of parts could be

derived from one Tiger to an unknown number of Tigers. The same methodology as for minimum numbers

was applied in the case of item amounts given in kilogrammes or as numbers of “pieces”. Hence in the case

of 33 skin pieces both calculations would yield one Tiger.

2.2 Hotspot Mapping – Crimestat III

Statistical mapping techniques have been applied to determine geographical areas of concern in the illegal Tiger

trade. In essence, hotspot mapping is used as a basic form of crime prediction, relying on retrospective data

to identify the areas of high concentrations of crime and where policing and other crime reduction resources

should focus (Chainey et al, 2008). Crimestat III was used as a spatial statistics program in the analysis of

crime incident locations to determine significant clusters of crime. Due to the consistent compilation of data in India since 2000 and as complied during the past four years

(2009-2012) by the NTCA has meant it was possible to apply Nearest Neighbour Analysis (NNA) calculation

to measure the distance of each point to its nearest neighbour (seizure). The technique was used to identify

significant clusters of crime, based on the Indian data.zurThe overview (Figure 2) provides information and statistics for each TRC. The Corruption Perception Index

2012 (measures the perceived levels of public sector corruption in 176 countries and territories around the

world) provides the regional distribution of where TRC rank. Scores for Lao PDR, Cambodia and Myanmar

are particularly low.

The latter part of Figure 2 reviews legislation and signatories to wildlife enforcement networks all of which

are essential for tackling trade at a regional level. The strengthening of wildlife laws and the national

implementation of CITES is essential for combating illegal international trade. All TRCs are Parties to

CITES, however in order for CITES to be effective each country needs to have enacted national legislation

that implements the Convention, including sufficient provisions to deal with illegal wildlife trade. For the

period of analysis, Lao PDR, Myanmar and Nepal did not have comprehensive CITES-enabling legislation3.

3.1 Wild Tiger Population

Currently listed as Endangered on the IUCN Red List of Threatened Species (IUCN, 2012), the distribution

and range of the Tiger is estimated to have declined by as much as 70% over the last 30 years (WWF 2012),

generally considered to be as low as 3200. The current population status needs to be treated with caution as

most TRCs do not conduct periodic Tiger census so the estimated population provided may have remained the

same for decades. Conversely, increases in population numbers should leave no room for complacency. For

example, India recorded an increase in numbers surveyed between 2006 and 2011, followed by an observation

in the decline in habitats occupied by Tigers (Global Tiger Initiative, 2012). As part of the GTRP process,

TRCs are working towards implementing enhanced and regular scientific monitoring in their landscapes.

These efforts will allow for more reliable and accurate Tiger population estimations for the future.

4. RESULTS

4.1 Seizure Analysis

To understand the distribution and number of Tiger seizures occurring specifically within TRCs (except

Cambodia which has not reported any seizures across this entire period), data were collected and analysed

for a 13-year period (January 2000 - December 2012). In total, 654 Tiger seizures have been included in

the analysis and Figure 3 provides a breakdown for the total number of seizures recorded during 2000-2012

divided into two time periods (for comparison purposes) along with the percentage of seizures each TRC

accounts for.

There are indications of change in the proportions over time. For most TRCs the change is minimal; however,

while India accounted for 58% of the total number of seizures in 2000-2009, this decreased to 29% of seizures

during 2010-2012. Conversely, the proportionality has increased for China, Malaysia, Nepal and Russia,

but is most notable for Viet Nam in the 2010-2012 period. Any increases may be attributed to a rise in law

enforcement efforts and any observable changes need to be treated with caution.

Data have also been collected from Taiwan since 2010 (Figure 4). These were predominantly of Tiger skin and

bones although there are suspected to be more smaller cases involving medicine containing Tiger derivatives

such as plasters (TRAFFIC staff in Taiwan, in litt., to S. Stoner, TRAFFIC, 18th January 2013).

: Tiger seizures in Taiwan (2010-2012)es From 12 Tiger Range

Countries

(2000-2012)

SFigure 5 provides the distribution for the number of Tigers seized per country for the previous period as

compared to the current period. This comparison identifies emerging areas of concern where the total number

of Tigers being seized are numerous and include a genuine increase in Tiger trafficking or an increase in law

enforcement efforts and reporting practices. The proportional increase as a perentage is most pronounced in

Indonesia, Malaysia, Thailand and Viet Nam. This method also allows for the identification of TRCs where

disparities exist between the number of seizures made, against the number of Tigers seized; Indonesia is one

such example, where 11 seizures involved the seizure of 50 Tigers (2010-2012).

At a superficial level, available data for both the number of seizures and the number of Tigers seized across all

TRCs for the total period 2000-2012 shows a gradual increase (Figure 6). However, the reasons for this gradual

increase are numerous and include a possible increase in law enforcement efforts and reporting practices.

The systematic compilation and analysis of seizure data supplied by TRCs and analysis of enforcement and

reporting effectiveness is necessary for understanding how reliable and reflective of the true picture these

crude trends are.

4.2 Movement in Commodity Type

Tiger skins (predominantly whole) have persisted as the most commonly seized items over the past 13 years

(2000-2012), accounting for almost half of all commodity types seized (see Figure 7), although during the

most recent three-year period this proportion has declined. Around one quarter of all seizures were of bones,

skeletons and skulls which has increased during the most recent period. The increase in the seizure of live

Tigers has been most noticeable in the last quarter, up to 7%, against the preceding quarterly periods when this

commodity type consistently accounted for 2% of all seizures.

The commodity type breakdown (excluding teeth, meat and other parts) for each TRC between 2010-2012

clearly shows the geographical distribution of certain Tiger parts (Figure 8). The seizure of bones and skins

are fairly common for most TRCs, however, skins are more often seized in India, Nepal and Indonesia.

4.3 Significant Tiger Seizures

The estimated number of Tigers killed for their parts ranges from a minimum of 1425 to a maximum of 1618

(See 2.1 Analysis). Although the maximum number of Tigers was calculated, the total was not used in further

analysis. Using this estimation it is calculated that the median number of Tigers represented per seizure is one.

Figure 1 provides the median4 number of Tigers represented for each TRC. This ensures that it is possible to

highlight those countries which make seizures involving large numbers of animals, even if the total number

of seizures they make may be small. As Figure 9 illustrates, Russia, Thailand, Bangladesh and Lao PDR, on

average, record a higher number of Tigers per seizure.

4.4 Live Tigers

There appears to be an emerging trend concerning the trade of live Tigers. Since 2000, there have been 25

seizures totalling 123 live Tigers including a Vietnamese seizure of 42 live Tigers5. Overall, this equates to

the seizure of 123 Tigers. However, a disproportionate number of live Tigers have been seized in the pastarathree years. Sixty-one live Tigers were seized between 2010-2012, representing 50% of the overall total of

live seizures made since 2000; Figure 10 indicates where these seizures occurred. (See Section 5.2.5 foradditional information.)h

4.5 Suspects

Information on criminal suspects is available for one quarter of seizures (165 / 25%). Although the majority

of arrests were of lone suspects, almost one-tenth of seizures involved three or more persons, on average

suspects received sentences of 4.3 years6 and one suspect received a life sentence. The presence of organized

crime is highlighted in Nepal, where in the last three years (2010-2012), 45 suspects been have arrested and

linked to 13 Tiger seizures. This averages to some 3.4 suspects arrested per seizure, more than the average of

2.0 suspects arrested per seizure for the remaining countries. This may indicate a more organized element to

trading in Nepal which represents both a source and transit country.

Seizures have been reported on the Russian side of the Russia-China border involving individuals attempting

to cross the border either on public or private transport into China. Important intelligence-led action took

place in 2012; with the seizure of eight Tiger skins, pelts of mink, otter, and fox hidden in refrigerators and

closets, 100 bottles of ginseng vodka, 150 rifle cartridges and around USD150 000 were also discovered,

illustrating the crossover with other types of crime.

4.6 Location Analysis

Figure 11 shows the locations of all seizures compared to protected areas (PA)7 and Tiger distribution. Of the

seizures that have been mapped (596, of which 58 seizures did not have specific co-ordinates), 65 occurred

within a PA accounting for 11% of all seizures. Beyond this, 183 (31%) occur within 10km of a PA, 288 (48%)

occur within 10-50km of a PA and the remaining 57 (10%) occur >50km from a PA.St5. ANALYSIS AND DISCUSSION

. ANALYSIS AND DISCUSSION

5.1 Towards Trend Analysis

Since 2000, 654 reports of seizures have been reported across 12 TRCs. The inclusion of government data has

assisted in filling some gaps present in the previous TRAFFIC analysis (Verheij, 2010) which reported on 481

seizures during January 2000-April 2010. This current report finds 535 seizures occurred for the same period,

54 more seizures than originally estimated for January 2000-April 2010. Moreover, the addition

of these

new data means that this current analysis has enabled the inclusion of more specific, directed and focused

recommendations than those possible in 2010.

Available data indicate an increase in the number of known seizures reported and the estimated number of

Tigers being seized. However, this increase could be attributed to a number of factors such as improved law

enforcement, better recording or reporting practices and this could differ for each TRC and is not necessarily

an increase in the actuality of trade. More comprehensive compilation and analysis of seizure data and

assessment of enforcement and reporting effectiveness is needed to answer this and to generate the relevant

response. Figure 6 show these levels on a year by year level. The analysis finds that in Indonesia, Malaysia,

Russia, Thailand and Viet Nam there has been both an increase in seizures and in the number of Tigers seized.

This indicates that trade is still an issue in these TRCs, but there has been relatively effective law enforcement

in response to this. In Lao PDR the number of Tigers seized has increased but the number of seizures has

decreased showing that whilst trade persists, law enforcement needs to improve. In India decreases in both

the number of Tigers being seized and the number of seizures may mean the actuality of crime is reducing or

that poaching and trade is becoming

more difficult to detect. In spite of this decrease in reported seizures it

is estimated that as much as 50% of Tiger deaths within some of the best protected areas in India are due to

poaching (Nagarahole, Bandipur, Bhadra, Biligirirangan Hills, Kudremukh, Anshi and Dandeli).

5.2 Trade hubs and the routes that supply them

Concentrations of Tiger crime are evident in Delhi, (India), Kathmandu (Nepal), the Amur-Heilong landscape

(Russia-China), Hanoi and Ho Chi Minh City (Viet Nam). These locations have been active in terms of the

number of seizures occurring there continuously throughout the total period examined (2000-2012). Whilst on some levels the law enforcement efforts are to be commended, it also highlights that law enforcement alone does not act as a deterrent. A more holistic, long-term, approach is needed at these specific locations to determine what is enabling criminal elements there. Changes in the data within this period also highlight emerging locations of concern such as Guangzhou (China) where seizures have increased over the past three years.oner

Natalia Pervushina

5.2.1 Indonesia: Domestic or International Trade?

Between 2010-2012, Indonesia seized the greatest number of Tigers of all TRCs, almost one fifth (n=50)

seized during this period and therefore is identified as a significant current threat. In addition, the prevalence

of large Tiger seizures in Indonesia is increasing. Since 2000, there have been 42 seizures, equating to an

estimated 92 Tigers, but these have been made at a disproportionate rate. Fifty (52%) of these animals were

seized in the last three years alone (2010-2012). Little is known of the intended destination of these large

quantities. The largest seizure took place in July 2012 with the confiscation of the following consignment: 14

Tigers, two Leopards, Panthera pardus, one Clouded Leopard Neofelis nebulosa, one Lion Panthera leo, three

Sun Bears Helarctos malayanus and one Asian Tapir Tapirus indicus together with two sacks full of Tiger

“pelts”, one stuffed Tiger head and four deer heads. It is suspected that the Tigers originated from the Kerinci

Seblat National Park (western Sumatra), the other species may have originated locally, however the lion is

not native to Indonesia. This case serves to raise two questions; firstly what was the intended destination?

Secondly, was this consignment collected as part of the activities of organized transboundary criminals which

appears possible given the quantity and variety of the contents, but is exacerbated by the presence of nonnative species.

Tiger trade surveys conducted by TRAFFIC in Sumatra

found that the availability of Tiger parts decreased

between 2002 and 2006 (Shepherd & Magnus, 2004,

Ng & Nemora, 2007). This decrease is likely to have

coincided with an increase in overt law enforcement

which may have driven the domestic market underground.

It is believed that a domestic market exists in Indonesia

for Tiger parts such as claws and canines, with bones

and skins being sought primarily for export.

5.2.2 Taiwan

In 2005 one of the largest ever single seizure of Tiger products took place at Kaohsiung Airport when over 140

kg of Tiger bones were confiscated, including 24 skulls, in a shipment from Jakarta, Indonesia. Traditionally

there has been a market for Tiger and Tiger parts in Taiwan, particularly Tiger bone (LaBudde, 1993 and

Nowell, 1993).

Further validation of an existing trade route between Indonesia and Taiwan was evidenced again recently

when forensic identification tests were carried out on Tiger bones seized in August 2012 in Taiwan. The

results determined the bones were of Sumatran origin of the subspecies P.t sumatrae. (TRAFFIC staff in litt.,

22nd January 2013 to S. Stoner, TRAFFIC).

During 1980-1990 Taiwan imported about 12 000 kg combined of Tiger and bear bone. Following diplomatic

pressure to address this, Taiwan enacted the Wildlife Conservation Law in 1989 (this changed to the Wildlife

Conservation Law (WCL) in 2007). As a former key consumer of Tigers, data on seizures made in Taiwan

were collected and analysed to determine whether the threat still exists. In total, four seizures were reported

in Taiwan for the period 2010-2012. Most of the seizures occurred following raids on uncertified medicine

manufacturers, enforcement actions which were not motivated by concerns about wildlife trade. No reported

seizures took place in any ports in Taiwan in 2010-2012. More information is needed to assess the current

threat posed by Taiwan to establish if new stocks have been imported in recent times.

In 2009, TRAFFIC conducted a survey of retail shops of traditional Chinese medicine (TCM) and curios to

gain an understanding of attitudes toward the use of Tiger products in Taiwan. Up to 4% of TCM retailers

interviewed confirmed that they had a supply of Tiger bone products. In the absence of forensic testing and

with a flourishing counterfeit product market, the verification of the products sold as containing Tiger is

challenging. However, the continued purchase, supply, and transportation of Tiger products indicates the

presence of market demand for endangered protected animals in Taiwan.

This advertisement (right) was found recently in Taiwan (2012), it

offers to buy back Tiger bone wine produced in mainland China.

It is believed that such products will then be resold in mainland

China. The buying price is TWD 10,000 [USD 340] for a large

bottle and TWD 5,000 [USD 170] for a smaller bottle. This advert

may indicate demand in Taiwan is in decline while still persisting in

mainland China.

5.2.3 Malaysia-Thailand

Tiger trade is known to have occurred across the Malaysia-Thailand border (e.g. Sungai Golok) (Verheij,

2010). Seizures in Malaysia during the current period were more common in the north of the peninsula and

occurred on both sides of the border in 2012. Figure 5 shows that since 2010, Malaysia and Thailand have

each seized 36 Tigers, accounting for almost one quarter of all Tigers seized during this period (2010-2012).

Thailand’s status is further discussed below. Malaysia’s high number of seized Tiger products is primarily

due to one of the largest Tiger seizure ever made in Southeast Asia. In 2012, eight Tiger skins along with

bags containing 22 Tiger skulls and bones and nine African Elephant Loxodonta africana tusks were seized

close to the Thai border in Kedah. Kedah has seen the greatest number of Tiger seizures in the past five years

in Malaysia, signifying the role it plays as a gateway for Tiger smuggling between the two countries8. The

end destination for this consignment is unknown, but the quantity seized suggests an element of organization.

5.2.4 India–Nepal–Tibet Autonomous Region (TAR-China)

The India–Nepal–Tibet trade route has previously been documented and discussed (EIA 2008, Verheij 2010).

In addition to this previous research, this report has identified a significant trade hotspot in India (Figure 14,

hotspot #2) close to the Nepalese border. Figure 11 shows the frequency of seizures along the Nepal–India

border encompassing the Terai Arc landscape. In contrast, seizures on the Nepal–China, India-China borders

are not so apparent.

In response to the implementation of Resolution 12.5 (Rev. CoP15), China reported on its current status to

CITES in anticipation of CoP16. Their report noted specific reference to the TAR (amongst other geographic

areas), where a series of public awareness campaigns to combat illegal wildlife trade have been undertaken

since 2010. China reported that “the illegal trade in Asian Big Cats in those areas has been effectively deterred”

(CoP16 Doc.50 (Rev.1) Annex 3b- p.5).

In October 2011, a trilateral CITES Enforcement Training Workshop was held in Chengdu, China and attended

by China, India and Nepal. This aimed to strengthen wildlife enforcement co-operation between the three

countries. During the workshop the TRAFFIC presentation; Collaboration with Governments to Combat

against Illegal Wildlife Trade stated that “during 2005 to 2011, the overt sale of Tiger parts and products

declined and no Tiger skin product was found for open sale in local markets in TAR and other ethnic Tibetan

regions”. However, few law enforcement incident reports exist for China’s TAR relating to Tigers, and this

represents a substantial knowledge gap for a previously identified trade hub.

5.2.5 Thailand-Lao PDR, Lao PDR-Viet Nam Trade Route

Since 2000, live Tigers consistently accounted for around two per cent of all seizures, however during 2009-

2012 to rose to seven per cent (Figure 7). Since 2010, there have been 619 live Tigers seized and almost

three quarters (74% / 45) of these were seized within these three TRCs; Lao PDR, Thailand and Viet Nam.

Prior to this in 2008; Viet Nam made the largest ever seizure of live Tigers, when 42 animals were found in

the southern Vietnamese province of Binh Duong. The paucity of wild Tigers living in Thailand, Lao PDR

and Viet Nam combined with the presence of Tiger breeding facilities within these three countries inevitably

causes questions to be raised with respect to the source of Tigers in trade.

Thailand has two known facilities that currently breed relatively large numbers of Tigers: Sri Racha Tiger Zoo

(Pattani) and Tiger Temple (Kanchanaburi), there are two such facilities in Lao PDR: Nonbouanoy (Thakek)

and Tonpheung (Bokeo). Viet Nam currently has 11 registered Tiger breeding facilities.

As part of the UK-funded ASEAN Wildlife Forensics Network programme co-ordinated by TRACE10: Malaysia, Thailand and Viet Nam have all expressed interest in creating a DNA database of captive Tigers. Viet Nam has proactively sampled and DNA-tested Tigers from some captive facilities as part of an initial project scoping exercise. This process can only become truly effective if all countries in the region with captive-bred Tiger populations also support ‘in-country’ and ‘centralised’ Tiger DNA database schemes. Despite the development of new cost-effective and transferable DNA profiling techniques, the Tiger DNA database project is currently constrained by a lack of funding.

5.2.6 Viet Nam

The rapid expansion of Viet Nam’s economy has contributed to an emerging sub-culture of consumers

demanding endangered species and products such as Tiger bone wine and pangolins Manis spp (Akella and

Allan, 2012). This finding is substantiated by five seizures in the past 12 months of frozen or whole Tigers

and it is believed their bones are sought for use in traditional medicines.

Tiger bone is the most commonly used Tiger part in Viet Nam.

This are boiled down until they form a glue-like substance,

known as cao. This is then dried and ground to a fine powder

to be consumed with alcohol. In 2010, Education for Nature

– Viet Nam carried out an investigation into this trade. This

revealed that Tigers sourced from farms in Lao PDR and

elsewhere are typically frozen and smuggled into Viet Nam.

Traders often sell the animals on to brokers that organise the

glue-making operations. This modus operandi still appears to

be ongoing (ENV 2010).

The identification and disruption of organized crime groups involved in the production and sale of Tiger bone

glue would have the greatest impact in stemming the trade. More effective patrolling at weak border points

would minimise trade between Lao PDR and Viet Nam. A better understanding of how trade occurs in this

sub-region is crucial, if realistic proactive recommendations on how to identify suppliers and traders are to

be made. Criminal investigations during 2012 uncovered a number of restaurants involved in the production

of cao in Viet Nam. The first case occurred in January when two workers were found processing a large

Tiger skeleton in a restaurant in the Hanoi’s Thanh Xuan District11. The restaurant owner had been arrested

for making Tiger bone glue in 2007 in a separate incident. In September 2012, five people were discovered

making cao from a frozen Tiger in Phú Thọ Province, near Hanoi12.

The individuals hired to transport Tigers along the trade route are often the most visible. They are usually

cheaply hired, but hold little information of others involved in the overall network. Considerable rigorous

investigative work is required beyond the arrest of such couriers before action can be taken to disrupt the trade

route and dismantle the criminal networks responsible for the trade in Tigers. Seized frozen specimens must

be disposed of appropriately and live Tigers placed in appropriate government-approved facilities.

5.2.7 Myanmar

Given Myanmar shares borders with other TRCs (see Figure 12) experiencing high levels of trade, it is

interesting to note that Myanmar has only reported one seizure of Tiger parts (canines) since 2000. The Tiger

trade was closely examined between 2001 and 2010, and at least 157 Tiger parts were observed for sale in

Myanmar (Oswell, 2010) as well as a number of other Asian big cat species. As already described, seizures

are only indicators of where trade exists and law enforcement is effective.

During 2000-2012, seven Tiger seizures which

originated from Myanmar were made in China.

Figure 13 presents the total number of known Tiger

seizures originating from Myanmar but seized in

China. The red dot denotes the one Tiger seizure

that occurred in Myanmar in 2009. In addition Ruili

(China) – a previous hotspot on the Myanmar-China

border has not had any reported seizures since 2003.

It is important to point out that much of the observed

trade in Myanmar occurs in areas which have not been

under the control of the central government. This

illustrates the challenges in achieving effective law

enforcement specifically in these areas (Oswell, 2010).

Tiger skin displayed for sale

at one of the many retails

outlets for Tiger products in

Mong La Special Region 4,

Shan State, Myanmar, June

2010.

5.3 Online Trade

The online trade in wildlife has previously been investigated and documented (IFAW 2008, Wyler and Sheikh,

2008, Felbab-Brown, 2011). Further current research states the potential global scale of the illegal wildlife

trade online (Sajeva et al, 2012). Improved law enforcement and the emergence of intelligence-led policing

may mean that some aspects of the illicit trade are displaced to online markets. Clearly the demand still exists

due to the number of Tigers being poached and seized. Online trade is a real and relevant threat for the

following reasons:

AUTONOMOUS; selling online is largely unregulated and is rarely subject to review and therefore there is a

minimal amount of monitoring of online sites.

GLOBAL REACH; online auctions break down and remove the physical limitations of traditional auctions

such as geography, presence, time, space, and a small target audience.

POPULARITY; the widespread level of trading that takes place on auction sites and its popularity may be an

attractive option for someone trying to sell products.

INVESTIGATION; locating where the seller is based is problematic when trying to establish which

jurisdiction the investigation applies to. In addition, if monitoring were to happen it may be challenging to

decide, where to start looking due to the sheer number of these types of sites.

NETWORKING; if trading is occurring on social networking sites, gaining access will be limited.

CLANDESTINE; can be used to circumvent key word searches, this was seen recently where the term ‘ox

bone’ was being used to describe ivory on eBay. Guises are used as an effective way to evade detection.

China, including Taiwan

In a relatively short period of time, China went from being one of the range countries with the most Tigers

to the range country with the least (Nowell & Xu, 2007). The principal cause of the Tiger’s demise was

considered to be China’s use of Tiger bone in traditional medicine (Nowell 2000). There have been, however,

concerted efforts to improve international and domestic trade laws, most recently with the creation of the

Provincial Inter-Agency CITES Enforcement Coordination Groups (PICE-CG) and the National Inter-Agency

CITES Enforcement Coordination Group (NICE-CG).

In 2011 TRAFFIC presented findings which noted that “during 2005 to 2011, the overt sale of Tiger parts and

products declined and no Tiger skin product was found for open sale in local markets in Tibet Autonomous

Region and other ethnic Tibetan regions”. It is likely that some of this decline can be attributed to improved

law enforcement, but as poaching persists, it is suspected that trade has been displaced to other points of sale.

TRAFFIC conducted a number of surveys during July 2012 on online auction sites in China and found claims of

33 Tiger products for sale. Items included bracelets, pendants, plasters and Tiger bone wine and glue. Adverts

promoted ‘blood being visible in items’ for sale as a unique selling point. Continued regular monitoring of

websites in China (Aug-Dec 2012) identified a further 270 adverts purporting to offer illegal Tiger products.

Many of the adverts used only keywords to indicate the sale of Tiger parts and then directed interested buyers

to communicate via QQ (a popular online messaging service in China). Members only websites were observed

in use and aid in evading detection. International trading was also identified from advertisements alluding to

Thai-language branded products, primarily Tiger bone glue.

In addition, in 2010 a Tiger skin was offered for sale on an online auction on a Chinese language website.

The offender attempted to sale the skin for TWD 2 800 000 [USD 96 400] and it was claimed to be “the only

legal whole Tiger skin in Taiwan” and was accompanied by with an import document. The import document

was suspected to be the export document issued by the Macau government. However, the skin had not

been registered to the relevant authority in Taiwan. According to Taiwan Wildlife Conservation Law, ownershave to register their possession with authorities to legally possess or display for sale the protected species

(include Tiger). It is suspected that the Tiger skin was smuggled into Taiwan, even though the seller claimed

to have the export permit issued by Macau. The seller was subsequently sentenced to seven months in prison

in 2011.

Combating Illegal Trade

In June 2012, 15 of the leading e-commerce sellers operating in mainland China, including Alibaba, Taobao,

and Tencent signed a declaration stating they have a zero-tolerance policy towards their services being

used to conduct illegal wildlife trading. The statement stipulates sellers and buyers must comply with all

aspects of China’s Wild Animal Protection Law and regulations under CITES. The declaration was issued

following a workshop on controlling online illegal wildlife trade organized by the National Forest Police

Bureau of the State Forestry Administration (SFA).

5.4 The Pareto Principle - Applying the 80-20 Rule

This final section will examine ways in which the collected and analysed seizure data be used as an essential

tool to direct law enforcement efforts to focus on the issues that are having the greatest impact on the illegal

Tiger trade. An important principle of crime prevention is that crime is highly concentrated on particular

people, places and commodities. In essence; 20% are vital and 80% are trivial and focusing on the vital

20% will achieve the greatest impact on reducing crime. This principle has been designed to enable the

prioritisation of those areas, individuals and trends that are causing the greatest threat and can be applied

specifically to Tigers as illustrated in the following section. Earlier it was discussed the some governments

and law enforcement agencies should be allocating more resources in the fight against the illegal Tiger trade.

Applying the Pareto Principle will enable the identification of those key threats that account for the vital

20% of the problem. Approaching the problem in an analytical and intelligence-led manner will assist in

combating illegal trade and will leave the greatest impact.

To understand the greatest threat to wild Tiger populations it is necessary to examine each of the three aspects

of the problem analysis triangle with this principle in mind;

5.4.1 Suspects: the presence of organized criminality

Organized crime groups (OCGs) often operate across boundaries, both in terms of crime type and geography.

It is suspected that OCG’s are operating the illegal wildlife trade using the same sophisticated techniques

and networks used for operating illicit trafficking in people, weapons, drugs and other contraband (Scanlon,

2012). This snapshot analysis of the offender base indicates that one-tenth of suspects implicated in the

seizures (2000- 2012) examined could be part of an OCG. There are elements of serious and organized

criminality identified in the seizure dataset, particularly within Russia and Nepal. Overwhelmingly, the lack

of information impedes a comprehensive assessment on the scale of organized crime driving the illegal Tiger

trade. More research and focused data collection is needed to understand the dynamics and motivations of

organized criminal networks involved in Tiger criminality along with other types of crime (both wildlife and

non-wildlife) that they may be engaging in.

In October 2012, the United Nations Convention against Transboundary Organized Crime (UNTOC) recognised

environmental crime, including illicit trafficking in wildlife, as a new form of transboundary organized crime

in need of a greater response. The meeting passed a resolution encouraging governments to further strengthen

their domestic laws to prevent and combat these crimes. UNTOC encouraged countries to take action against

trafficking in endangered species, and to consider making trafficking of endangered species a serious crime13.

The UNTOC has designated a definition that applies to varying levels of organized and transboundary crime

and there are some examples within the seizure data that meet these criteria, as shown by Figure 13.

135.4.2 Location; Statistical Hotspot Analysis

Limited law enforcement resources make the fight against the illegal Tiger trade a challenge. To tackle this, is

it essential that resources are focussed on those sectors of concern. In line with the Pareto Principle, a statistical

mapping technique has been applied to illustrate the value of collecting data in a consistent and systematic

manner. The seizure data, as already discussed, originates from a variety of sources and to some extent some

of the results it produces may be speculative. India accounted for just under one third of all seizures during

the past three years (29% / n=42), although the number of seizures occurring has decreased there in the longer

term (2000-2012). The consistent and reliable manner in which seizures have been reported in India

during

the period 2000-2012, and during the past four years (2009-2012) which has been compiled and made publicly

available by the NTCA, makes this the most indicative sub-set of data to use for further analysis. This has

been conducted to derive five statistically significant ‘hotspots’.

The following representation has been developed using

the Crimestat Nearest Neighbourhood Measurement

(see Methods section above). It presents images of

ellipses to show where there are clusters of crime that are

statistically significant (Figure 14). This analysis may

provide guidance and further exploration to examine why

seizures are more common at these spots. Each problem

can be realised contextually and the right response should

be developed based upon those findings.

‘Caveat’: although India’s data is considered to be more

reliable than other TRC’s, attention needs to be given to

the variety of sources in this dataset, which should be

refined to increase accuracy of analytical insight.

HOTSPOT 1: Delhi

Delhi (National Capital Region) is an exception among the hotspots as it is not located in or near to any Tiger

landscapes. Given that Delhi is the capital of India one may expect law enforcement to be relatively effective

and which accounts for an increased number of seizures occurring here. This finding is also consistent with an

examination of Leopard Panthera pardus seizures in which Delhi also emerged as the most important hub of

illegal trade in the country accounting for more than 26% of all Leopards seized. Leopard seizures in Delhi

generally consist of a larger number of leopard parts (Raza et al, 2012). Tiger seizures within this hotspot are

predominantly of skins, but there have been no significant seizures there since 2005.

HOTSPOT 2: Ramnagar

The town integral to this hotspot is Ramnagar which sits close to the entrance of Corbett National Park (NP).

There exists also an arterial route that runs through the park and leads up to the Nepalese border which is

open14 from India. Corbett NP had previously been cited as one of the densely populated Tiger reserves in

India. Though Corbett and the adjacent Ramnagar Forest division have healthy Tiger populations they remain

a prime target for poachers and in 2012 a poaching group were found hiding out in the protected zone of the

park with traps15. Tiger skins were most commonly seized from this loation.

HOTSPOT 3: Central India Region

Seizures at this spot have persisted throughout the 13-year period (2000-2012). Located within the Central

India region and is close to the Kanha and Pench National Park. The town of Balgahat sits to the right of the

hotspot and is a central location to a number of arterial routes, which extend through parts of the Pench NP,

Balihar Forest Range and Nainpur Forest Range. It is suspected that most of the Tigers are moved north as a

number of seizures also occur in the city of Jabalpur, Madhya Pradesh.

HOTSPOT 4: Calcutta - Sunderbans

This hotspot refers to the area covering Calcutta and spans south to the edge of the Sunderbans. The Sundarbans

is the largest single block of tidal halophytic mangrove forest in the world and is a UNESCO World Heritage

Site covering parts of Bangladesh and the Indian State of West Bengal. Skins and whole carcasses are the

most commonly seized commodity type, although seizures at this hotspot have reduced during the most recent

period (2010-2012), in addition, recent newspaper reports states that poaching has been reduced to nil in the

park16. Seizures on the Bangladeshi side have been at a much lower rate in comparison to India, the most

recent seizure there was in 2011 when a suspect was found in possession of three Tiger heads, four Tiger skins,

and 24 kg of bones.

HOTSPOT 5: Western Ghats

As is consistent with the other hotspots, skins were most commonly seized from this locality. This hotspot

covers the southern edge of the Sathyamangalam Tiger Reserve, located in the Western Ghats landscape. The

Sathyamangalam Tiger Reserve forms part of a landscape inclusive of Karnataka, Tamil Nadu and Kerala

(Nagarahole, Bandipur, Wayanad, Mudumalai, Brahmagiri, Sathyamangalam, Biligiriranga Hills, and Cauvery

Wildlife Sanctuary) and is probably the largest contiguous single population in the world with an estimated

354 to 411 total Tiger population (Jhala et al, 2011).

It is of note that only a few seizures in India represent a significant number of Tigers in comparison to other

TRCs during the last three years (2010-2012). It is inferred that Tigers are sourced from India and moved to

other zones of distribution such as Nepal and Myanmar where stocks are built up and transported to consumer

countries. Furthermore, two of the identified significant hotspots in India (see Hotspots 2 and 4, above) are

located within close proximity to neighbouring country borders, Nepal and Bangladesh (see Figure 14). This

should be used to create leverage for developing and enhancing cross border agreements.

Lastly, what these findings indicate is the close geographical relationship between incidents of poaching and

seizures, the two are intrinsically linked. Establishing a clear picture of the association between the poaching

and seizures and the individuals is essential. India is unique in that the National Tiger Conservation Authority

(NTCA) now records and authenticates all reports of Tiger mortality, poaching and seizures on a database

called Tigernet (www.tigernet.nic.in) which is available for public viewing. This central collection of data can

assist further in identifying areas of concern, where both poaching and seizures are taking place.

5.4.3 Target / Victim: Crime Enablers

The third point to consider when applying the Pareto Principle is the vulnerability of the target, the Tiger. With

this is in mind, four barriers have been identified as hindering progression in the fight against the Tiger trade;

poaching, legislation, corruption and the lack of information sharing. To varying degrees, some if not all, of

these factors enable the illegal Tiger trade. The following section will provide examples of why TRCs should

scrutinise each barrier to formulate a country level intervention which will prevent, deter or reduce the risk to

Tigers.

Poaching at site level: stemming the source

The contribution of poaching to the decline in populations of endangered species has increased exponentially

(McMurray, 2008). The need for protection is now crucial to safeguard the last few remaining populations and

to prevent further fragmentations at a landscape level.

Figure 12 illustrates that the majority of Tiger seizures

occur outside of the protected areas. This is particularly

important as it simply reinforces the need to enhance

landscape protection to ensure poachers are not only

gaining entry into the protected area, but have a higher

likelihood of being caught when attempting to remove

the poached Tiger. Further to this is the necessity of

intelligence-led law enforcement, without which antipoaching

and landscape protection cannot be trulyeffective.

Inadequate Legislation Using Indonesia as a Specific Example

At an international level, the commercial trade in Tigers is prohibited by CITES. In order for CITES to be

fully effective, Parties need to fully implement national legislation which enables the enforcement of the

Convention within their borders. Furthermore, such legislation should be sufficient to fully address illegal

trade at a national and international level. The example below provides some understanding of why this is

necessary and the subsequent consequences, if loopholes exist.

In August 2012, the Nature Conservation and Forest Protection Agency in Cilandak (south Jakarta, Indonesia)

seized a single Tiger skin and one stuffed Leopard Panthera pardus. Both species are listed as totally protected

in the Act of the Republic of Indonesia No.5 of 1990 Concerning Conservation of Living Resources and their

Ecosystems, commonly referred to as “Act No. 5”. Leopards are listed at a species level, meaning that all

nine subspecies listed by the IUCN Red List are included (Miththapala et al. 1996, Uphyrkina et al. 2001).

In contrast, Tigers are listed at a sub-species level with the Act naming just two; the Critically EndangeredSumatran Tiger P.t. sumatrae and the extinct Javan Tiger P.t.sondaica. Since the law only protects Tigers if

they are either from the Sumatran, or Javan subspecies, this translates into a situation where law enforcement

agencies have to determine and prove exactly what sub-species of Tiger is involved before they can proceed

with prosecution. In the 2012 case, forensic tests on the seized skin proved inconclusive and the authorities

were unable to proceed with the case relating to the Tiger and were left with no choice but to abandon charging

the accused for offences relating to the Tiger, and so laid charges for the Leopard only. While Indonesia has

been Party to CITES since 1978, and has CITES-enabling legislation assessed as Category 1 standard, there

remain difficulties with enforcing national legislation governing Tiger poaching and trade.

Though this example is quite specific and relates to just one country, it does introduce the possibility that other

TRCs may be restricted in their ability to act against the trade due to the presence of poorly conceived national

legislation. When the law fails, it cannot act as an adequate deterrent.

Legislation

AccoCorruption

Corruption is difficult to quantify, monitor and prevent. Its presence is intrinsic in some cultures and its

existence is particularly prominent in Asia (Myanmar, Laos, Cambodia; Corruption Perception Index 201217).

It can exist at all levels; from on the ground staff to high level governmental and ministerial levels which can

hinder policy or law making (UNODC, 2012). Despite many countries having laws and monitoring agencies

created to eradicate corruption it still persists. Often, however these laws rarely act as a deterrent as they are

seldom enforced coupled with weak investigations and subsequent penalties are often low.

In 2002, the head of the Thailand CITES Management Authority was requested by Sri Racha Tiger Zoo

to issue a licence to send its Tigers to Sanya Zoo in China’s southern province of Hainan for feeding and

breeding during October and December that year. The request was approved. However, prosecutors later

ascertained that the request “was made for commercial purposes”, and so were not in line with the law18. The

Thai Wild Animal Reservation and Protection Act 1992 only allow for exports of protected wildlife species

under government agreements for research and conservation purposes. In December 2012, the former head

of the Royal Forest Department of Thailand was subsequently charged for authorising this transfer under an

article in Thai law which includes the “abuse of power, failing to carry out his duty and/or corruption”. What

is not clear is why the charges took so long to be applied but it does exemplify the lack of prioritisation by

prosecuting agencies to deal with corruption charges.

Lack of Information Sharing and Intelligence-Led Law Enforcement

The need and value of an intelligence-led approach in tackling the illegal Tiger trade is fundamental. When

transboundary criminality does occur; with Tigers being killed in source countries and moved across transit

countries and / or consumer countries, it is essential for information on these movements to be shared. One

of INTERPOL’s most important functions is to assist police (via INTERPOL NCBs) in its member countries

to share critical crime-related information using I-24/7, the organization’s secure communication network

and the system of international Notices and Diffusions19. Information sharing with INTERPOL is essential

to facilitate and enhance wider investigations. As an international agency INTERPOL has the necessary

leverages through the NCBs at a national level but also perform a vital role monitoring trade globally.

INTERPOL Notices (Figure 15) are international requests for cooperation or alerts allowing police in

member countries to share critical crime-related information. Notices are international alerts used by police to

communicate information about crimes, criminals and threats to their counterparts around the world. Notices

are circulated by INTERPOL to all member countries at the request of a country or an authorized international entity.

6. CONCLUSION

The illegal trade in Tigers undoubtedly persists. It is not possible to discern with accuracy the trend in illegal

trade levels, but data available to TRAFFIC show no sign of abatement. Since 2000 the number of seizures

and the number of Tigers killed for trade has been gradually increasing. The seizure picture presented in this

report can only be interpreted as an indication of where trade is concentrated and where law enforcement is

effective. Therefore, while the analysis provides some important findings that could assist with prioritising

interventions and initiating action, it is equally important to develop alternative meaningful ways in which

trade can be systemically monitored in the future.

Where law enforcement is effective seizures occur. Where reported seizures are absent the trade, the evidence

for trade is opaque. Encouraging TRCs to address the situation in light of a lack of evidence to suggest there

is trade is problematic (Myanmar). Further concern is expressed with respect to TRCs where seizure numbers

are low but the quantity of Tigers being seized is significant in comparison to other TRCs (i.e. Indonesia,

Thailand). Some of the factors discussed within this report such as corruption and lack of information sharing

persists which inevitably inhibit the exposure of the true level of trade.

The increase in law enforcement and awareness of the law may have led to the displacement of markets

previously trading in Tigers. The monitoring of the online Tiger trade in China has led to the identification

of deliberate methods to evade detection. Clandestine terminology is being used to circumvent key word

searches, as is the use of password protected forums and online messaging services for negotiating sales. The

perceived threat from online trade is suspected to be great when considering very little monitoring of online

trade takes places. China has dealt with this by gaining the commitment of 15 leading online companies who

have accepted a zero-tolerance policy towards their services being used to conduct illegal wildlife trading,

and has instituted regular monitoring of compliance with this policy. Online trade is likely to occur in other

TRCs given the popularity and relative autonomy of the Internet; therefore it is apparent that this should be

given priority.

Engagement with INTERPOL is essential, as it has the capacity to address trans-boundary criminality and

can analyse the situation at a regional level to identify those prolific organized crime networks threatening

the existence of the Tiger. Furthermore, as an inter-governmental agency INTERPOL has the necessary

leverage through the NCBs at a national level, as well as performing a vital role in monitoring trade at a

global scale. There needs to be an increased effort to combat regional level illicit wildlife trade by enhancing

regional collaborative work by the Tiger range countries. To some extent this is already happening, with the

establishment of transboundary wildlife enforcement networks such as ASEAN-WEN and SAWEN. These

platforms have encouraged the endorsement of bilateral Memoranda of Understanding that still need to be

further contextualised into transborder governmental action plans. However, more coordination and support

natis needed to enhance these tranboundary law enforcement networks already in place. Intelligence analysis

produced by the systematic compilation of seizure data should be used to direct and focus their enforcements

efforts and enable a plan of future resource prioritization.

Gaining commitment from some governments and / or law enforcement bodies to tackle the Tiger trade may

be problematic. One reason for this could be due to the relatively small proportion of crime that the Tiger trade

accounts for against other types of crime or indeed or other types of wildlife crime (ivory or pangolin trade

for example). Using India’s annual average of 28 seizures indicates the Tiger trade is clearly not a highly

prevalent crime type. To combat this, the substantial impact the loss of one Tiger can have upon an already

fragile population needs to be reiterated. More emphasis needs to be placed upon the subsequent effect and

irreversible damage to the ecosystem should Tigers become extinct. Of equal importance is the need to

demonstrate the role of organized criminality in the illegal killing and trade in Tigers and its relationship with

other types of serious crime.

7. RECOMMENDATIONS

1. Governance and Policy

All Tiger range and consumer countries should fully implement the provisions of CITES Resolution Conf.

12.5 (Rev. CoP15) on Asian big cats (ABCs) (all range countries and other relevant Parties to implement

systems for the recording of illegal trade in Asian big cats and share information as appropriate to ensure

co-ordinated investigations and enforcement) and associated CoP Decisions, aimed at increasing regional

cooperation, improving enforcement controls and procedures, reporting and compliance and encouraging use

of a central trade recording database.

TRCs should submit adequate and timely reports on Asian Big Cats to the CITES Secretariat on measures

taken to comply with CITES Resolution Conf. 12.5 (Rev. CoP15) and other relevant Decisions relevant to

tigers such as Decision 14.69, and, particularly, report against the incidents of Tiger poaching and illegal trade

in Tigers within their territory.

2. Online Trade

TRCs should consider addressing the illegal online trade in their respective jurisdications, building on the

proative approach pursued by China. Findings should also be communicated to INTERPOL via NCBs for central monitoring and analysis.

3. Information Sharing and Analysis

At the 16th CITES Conference of the Parties (CoP), the Parties engaged in the GTRP should develop a

colloborative process for reporting to both CITES under Resolution Conf. 12.5 (Rev. CoP15) and the GTRP.

The GTRP should develop and agree on a robust and timely reporting mechanism that will also fulfil the

requirements of CITES for Tigers. This should be submitted to the Standing Commitee (SC) 65. This level

of co-ordination would also assist in streamlining the reporting requirements for TRCs.

To facilitate wider intelligence sharing and crime prevention Tiger range countries should initiate intelligence

sharing through INTERPOL Notices. Similarly, INTERPOL should consider ways in which actionable

information from relevant non-governmental organizations can be utilised for enhancing law enforcement

efforts against trans-boundary organized crime groups.

Software, such as i2, is proposed as a centralised monitoring system for the recording and analysis of

transboundary organized Tiger trade at a regional level. i2 is a database application that contains unique

collaboration and search capabilities enabling the capture, management of data and the dissemination of

information in support of an intelligence-led approach. TRCs are requested to consider feeding information

into a central monitoring systems. Intelligence must be used to direct resources to where trade exists;

law; landscape protection alone cannot control the demand for Tigers. The monitoring system will enable regular

data submission on a biannual / annual basis to facilitate the following:

• Targeted law enforcement action;

• Highlighting cross-border activity and creates justification for transboundary collaboration;

• The establishment of an early warning system disseminated across Tiger range countries;

• Enable TRCs to channel information into a central database;

• Management of a database allowing for systematic data collection & analysis.

Data collection and compilation can also provide an essential counterpart to landscape-level monitoring of

Tiger populations and law enforcement against anti-poaching. To facilitate wider intelligence sharing and

crime prevention TRCs should initiate intelligence sharing through INTERPOL Notices.

INTERPOL to facilitate effective approaches in which actionable information from regional non- governmental

organizations can be utilised to enhance law enforcement efforts against transboundary organized crime groups.

Governments should consider conducting in-depth assessments, examining the purpose of Tiger breeding

facilities in their respective jurisdictions, and any connection to trade in Tigers and Tiger products.

The Tiger DNA database project, currently being developed by TRACE, should be adequately funded and

resourced to continue its application to all countries in the region housing captive Tiger populations to enable

testing of seizures against the database to determine their source. Furthermore, DNA-testing should be

mandatory for all Tiger seizures.

4. Law Enforcement, Protection and Intelligence

As a minimum measure, park patrolling should be enhanced through the use of Spatial Monitoring and

Reporting (SMART) Tools to all Tiger inhabited Protected Areas.

Each TRC to consider the implementation a national task force dedicated to addressing wildlife crime at a

national level, in countries where they currently do not exist. Options for this include the National Environmental

Security Task Force (NEST) advocated by INTERPOL to serve as a common platform and approach worldwide

for national compliance and law enforcement responses. Similar collaborative efforts have been established

in China with the formation of the Provincial Inter-Agency CITES Enforcement Coordination Groups (PICECG)

of which there are currently 12, and the National Inter-Agency CITES Enforcement Coordination Group

(NICE-CG). Malaysia and Thailand also have established national level Wildlife Enforcement Networks

(WEN) comprising of various enforcement agencies, though the effectiveness of these platforms is unknown

due to the lack of annual standardised monitoring mechanisms. Both India and Nepal have central dedicated national Wildlife Crime Control Bureaus (WCCB) whose remit

is to investigate wildlife crime should be considered as model structures to be adapted by other TRCs. In

embracing an intelligence-led concept, each TRC may consider developing national databases to document

and monitor trade, poaching and those suspects engaged therein.

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